Introduction:
Our earth is home for millions of living beings, starting from micro-organisms and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, elephants and blue whales.
This entire habitat that we live in has immense biodiversity.
We humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system in which we are only a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence.
For example, the plants, animals and micro-organisms re-create the quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink and the soil that produces our food without which we cannot survive.
Forests plays a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend.
Biodiversity – The variety of flora and fauna in a given geographical area is called biodiversity of that area.
Some places are rich in biodiversity, while some others are poor in biodiversity.
For example; the Amazon rainforest is rich in biodiversity but that is not the case with the Sahara Desert.
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple networks of interdependencies.
Flora – All the naturally occurring native plants of a particular region are called flora.
Fauna – All the animal life present in a particular place or at a particular time period are called fauna.
Flora and Fauna in India:
If you look around, you will be able to find that there are some animals and plants which are unique in your area.
You may have realised the importance of these resources in our daily life.
These diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated in our daily life that we take these for granted.
But, lately, they are under great stress mainly due to insensitivity to our environment.
India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world
(Estimated to be 1.6 million)
India is a Mega diverse Country, a name given to 17 countries which have very high biological diversity.
India is home to 80,000 species of fauna, i.e. animals and 47,000 flora, i.e. plants.
This is evident from the fact that 10% of flora and 20% fauna in India come under threatened category.
List of Critically Endangered Species:
Cheetah, pink-headed Duck, Mountain Quail, Forest Spotted Owl, Madhuca insignis (wild mahua), Hubbardia heptaneuron (a grass species)
Number of Endangered Species:
79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of amphibians, 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.
Vanishing Forests
The dimensions of deforestation in India are staggering.
The forest and tree cover in the country is estimated at 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 per cent of the total geographical area (dense forest 12.2 per cent; open forest 9.14 per cent; and mangrove 0.14 per cent).
According to the State of Forest Report (2015), the dense forest cover has increased by 3,775 sq km since 2013.
However, this apparent increase in the forest cover is due to conservation measures, management interventions and plantation, etc., by different agencies.
Classification Based on IUCN:
(International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
Normal Species – Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival is called normal species. Such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
Endangered Species – Species which are in danger of extinction is called endangered species.
The survival of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate.
The examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.
Vulnerable Species – Species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate is called vulnerable species. Such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
Rare Species – Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate is called rare species.
The examples of such species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
Extinct Species – Species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may occur are called extinct species. Such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth.
Endemic Species – Species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers is called endemic species.
Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?
The world’s fastest land mammal, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and specialised member of the cat family and can move at the speed of 112 km/hr.
The cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard.
Its distinguishing marks are the long teardrop shaped lines on each side of the nose from the corner of its eyes to its mouth.
Prior to the 20th century, cheetahs were widely distributed throughout Africa and Asia.
Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct due to a decline of available habitat and prey.
The species was declared extinct in India long back in 1952.
Causes of Depletion of Flora and Fauna:
Agricultural Expansion:
According to the Forest Survey of India, over 262,000 sq km of forest area was converted into agricultural land in India between 1951 and 1980.
Moreover, a substantial part of the tribal belts has been deforested or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Destruction of forest results in loss of habitat for many species.
Enrichment Plantation:
Enrichment plantation was done to promote a few favoured species in many parts of India.
This practice involves plantation of a single commercially valuable species.
This is also called monoculture plantation.
This leads to elimination of other species and also results in loss of biodiversity.
For instance, teak monoculture has damaged the natural forest in South India.
Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius spp.) and Rhododendron forests.
Development Projects:
Large scale development projects have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests.
Over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for river valley projects since 1951.
40,000 hectare of forest would be inundated by the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh.
You may have read in science lessons that hydroelectric project results in inundation of a very large area of forest.
This always proves detrimental to the biodiversity of the affected area.
Mining:
Mining is another important factor behind deforestation.
The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the ongoing dolomite mining.
It has disturbed the natural habitat of many species and blocked the migration route of several others, including the great Indian elephant.
Many foresters and environmentalists hold the view that the greatest degrading factors behind the depletion of forest resources are grazing and fuel-wood collection.
Though, there may be some substance in their argument, yet, the fact remains that a substantial part of the fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather than by felling entire trees.
The forest ecosystems are repositories of some of the country’s most valuable forest products, minerals and other resources that meet the demands of the rapidly expanding industrial-urban economy.
These protected areas, thus mean different things to different people, and therein lies the fertile ground for conflicts.
The Himalayan Yew in trouble:
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a medicinal plant found in various parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree, and it has been successfully used to treat some cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world.
The species is under great threat due to over-exploitation.
In the last one decade, thousands of yew trees have dried up in various parts of Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
Do you know that?
Do you know that over half of India’s natural forests are gone, one-third of its wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its surface water bodies polluted, 40 per cent of its mangroves wiped out, and with continued hunting and trade of wild animals and commercially valuable plants, thousands of plant and animal species are heading towards extinction?
Others Negative factors that cause such fearful depletion of the flora and fauna:
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and forest fires are factors, which have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity.
Other important causes of environmental destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing of responsibility for environmental well-being.
Over-population in third world countries is often cited as the cause of environmental degradation.
However, an average American consumes 40 times more resources than an average Somalian.
Similarly, the richest five per cent of Indian society probably cause more ecological damage because of the amount they consume than the poorest 25 per cent.
The former shares minimum responsibilities for environmental well-being.
Social Effect of Resource Depletion:
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not just a biological issue.
The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.
Such losses have increasingly marginalised and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-dependent communities, who directly depend on various components of the forest and wildlife for food, drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
Within the poor, women are affected more than men.
In many societies, women bear the major responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic subsistence needs.
As these resources are depleted, the drudgery of women increases and sometimes they have to walk for more than 10 km to collect these resources.
This causes serious health problems for women and negligence of home and children because of the increased hours of work, which often has serious social implications.
The indirect impact of degradation such as severe drought or deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the poor the hardest.
Poverty in these cases is a direct outcome of environmental destruction.
Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the quality of life and environment in the subcontinent.
It is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies subcontinent.
It is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India:
The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 – An act implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting natural habitats is called The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.
The demands for some rules to protect the wildlife were raised by the conservationists during the 1960s and 1970s.
The government then enacted the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
Some salient provisions of this act are as follows:
An all India list of protected species was published.
Hunting was banned to protect the remaining population of some endangered species.
Trade in wildlife was restricted. Habitats of wildlife were given legal protection.
National parks and wildlife sanctuaries were established.
Many projects were started to protect specific animals, e.g. Project Tiger.
The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others.
Most recently, the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India.
The conservation projects are now focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components.
There is now a more intensive search for different conservation measures.
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning.
In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.
Benefits of Conservation:
Conservation helps in preserving ecological diversity and our life support systems; water, air and soil.It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.
Project Tiger
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal web.
In 1973, the authorities realised that the tiger population had dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated 55,000 at the turn of the century.
The major threats to tiger population are numerous, such as poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey base species, growing human population, etc.
The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian countries left the tiger population on the verge of extinction.
Since India and Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds of the surviving tiger population in the world, these two nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger”, one of the wellpublicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973.
Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered species, but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude.
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh,
Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger reserves of India.
Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:
Government’s Categorization of Forests:
Reserved Forests – The protected forests with the natural habitat that has high degree of protection from any kind of hunting and poaching is called reserved forests.
More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests.
These are considered as the most valuable from conservation perspective.
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of its total forest area.
Protected Forests – The forests which are protected from any further depletion are called protected forests.
Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest.
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests.
Permanent forest – Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as “Permanent forest”.
These forest states are maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce and for protective reasons.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
Unclassed Forests – Forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities are called UN classed forests.
Forests which do not come under either of the above two categories are called un-classed forests.
All North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities.
New Trends in Conservation Policy:
Increase Biodiversity:
Previously, the focus of conservation was on a few bigger animals, like tiger and lion.
Now, the focus is on biodiversity rather than on a few species.
So, even insects are getting proper attention as part of conservation effort.
According to new notifications under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
Six species of plants were added to the list in 1991.
Community and Conservation:
You have read that many local communities depend on forest for sustenance.
These people were often sidelined and annoyed because of conservation efforts.
Then a new realization took place that involving the community in conservation efforts bears good results.
Many local communities have also recognized that conservation can secure their long-term livelihood.
At many places, such communities are coordinating with government officials in conservation efforts.
At Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan), villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
In many villages, people are protecting habitats and are explicitly rejecting government involvement.
For example; the inhabitants of five villages in Alwar district of Rajastahn have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Soncuri’.
They have declared their own set of rules and regulation to protect the wildlife.
Nature worship is an age old custom in the Hindu religion and in many tribes.
Sacred groves in forests are the result of this tradition.
Such spots in forests are untouched by human intervention.
The Mundas and the Santhals of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees.
Similarly, the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica), as part of wedding rituals.
Monkeys are considered the representatives of the Hindu god Hanuman.
At most of the places people do not harm monkeys or langurs because of this belief.
In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, chinkara, nilgai and peacocks are protected by the community and nobody harms them.
The Chipko Movement is a good example of community participation in conservation programme.
Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
The Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme is another example of involvement of local communities in forest management.
This programme has been in practice in Orissa since 1988.
Under this programme, the local villagers form some institutions and manage the conservation activities.
In lieu of that, they get the right to take and utilize some forest resources.
Sacred groves – a wealth of diverse and rare species:
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected.
Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).
These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any interference with them is banned.
Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial.
The Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings.
To many of us, peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred.
Indian society comprises several cultures, each with its own set of traditional methods of conserving nature and its creations.
Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals which are closely protected.
You will find troops of macaques and langurs around many temples.
They are fed daily and treated as a part of temple devotees.
In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.
“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen who destroy it”. Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
Wildlife Sanctuary: A reserved area for preserving natural beauty, e.g., wildlife is called Wildlife Sanctuary.
Chipko Movement: A movement launched by the people of the Himalayas against deforestation is called Chipko Movement.
Joint Forest Management: A programme launched for management and restoration of degraded forests is called Joint Forest Management,
